Preschool Teacher Hiring Standards, Policies, and Practices Essay Example for Free

Preschool Teacher Hiring Standards, Policies, and Practices Essay The early years of children are important because of their unique developmental needs (physical, cognitive, social and emotional). These needs can only be identified and addressed by professionally trained and competent preschool or early childhood teachers. However, attracting and hiring these teachers are serious challenges for school administrators. To look more closely into the problem and help craft a solution, this paper examined the current standards, policies, and practices in hiring preschool teachers in public and private schools in Pasig City based on the recommended hiring standards, policies, and practices in the literature, DepEd, and experts. The study suggests appropriate standards, policies, and practices in hiring teachers that will ensure that children’s unique developmental needs are met and that they shall have gained readiness to proceed to the next educational level. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Background of the Study Children who undergo preschool education perform better in primary grades (grade 1-3) than those who do not (Branscombe, Castle, Dorsey, Surbeck, and Taylor 2000; Jalongo, Fennimore, Pattnaik, Laverick, Brewster, and Mutuku 2004; Laosa 2005; Soliven, Guerrero, Barsaga, Palma, Canlas, and Garon 1997). Mutuku. By the time they enter elementary school, they can say the alphabet, write their names, and count numbers one to ten. They adjust better, follow instructions, and interact with their teachers and classmates. Because of thparents realize the benefits in the early schooling of children, preschool student enrollment has been growing in number, which encouraginges a number of investors to set up preschools. Preschool education is mostly managed by private individuals, organizations, and institutions because of insufficient government funding for the enhancement of preschool education (Neri 2001; Soliven et al. 1997). According to the Department of Education (DepEd), tis, there has been an unprecedented growth in the number of preschools both in rural and urban areas in the private sector. The latest directory of private preschools in Metro Manila from the Department of Education (DepEd) shows that there are 1,477 preschools all over the National Capital Region during the school year 2005-2006, and 872 preschools during the school year 2000-2001; thus, there was an increase of 575 preschools. (see table 1). (See Table 1)(See Table 1) he number latest of private schools in Metro Manila grew from 4,788 in school year 2003-2004 to 6664 in the school year 2007-2008, a 72% showing increase. from school year 2000-2001 to school year 2005-2006 (see table 1). Preschool enrollment in private schools rose from 349,574 in school year 2003-2004 to 410,778 in school year 2007-2008, an 85% increase. Many see preschool education as a profitable business, but one that entails high costs if one is to meet certain standards, such as hiring qualified and licensed teachers and paying higher salaries. Quality education also means better teacher-to-student ratio (the ideal is 1:10 or 1:15), a developmentally appropriate curriculum, and quality teaching materials—all of which translate to higher costs. Ms. Vanessa Morales, owner and administrator of Kid’s First Discovery Space preschool in BF Homes, Paranaque, wanted her preschool to be different from preschools run by business people. Her priority is providing quality education on a not-for-profit basis. At Kid’s First, she has knowledgeable and experienced teachers: all her head teachers have master’s degrees in Education or Psychology, major in child development (Manuzon 2006). Due to the growing number of private preschools in Metro Manila, there will be a great demand for preschool teachers who are professionally trained to manage the learning needs of young children. To ensure that For this purposeteachers hired are qualified and competent, , DepEd issued DECS Order No. 107 (1989) outlining the standards in the organization and operation of preschools (see appendix A), which include guidelines on staff requirements. The qualifications of teachers prescribed by DepEd for private schools are: Bachelor of Science degree specializing in Family Life and Child Development or Early Childhood Education or Kindergarten; Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education with 18 units in Preschool Education and 54 hours of practicum in preschool classes; Bachelor of Arts/Science degree in a discipline allied to education, arts, nursing, anthropology, with 18 units of preschool education. Upon appointment, the teacher should have at least 6 units of preschool education, and the requirement of 18 units may be gradually implemented as follows: At the end of Year 1 9 units; Year 2 12 units; Year 3 15 units; Year 4 18 units. In addition, the sprouting of private preschools are also due to the following: 1) most private schools do not accept grade one pupils if they have not been through kinder and nursery or preschools; b) they are financially viable and a lucrative business; 2c) public schools cannot accommodate all preschool-age children and so parents put them in private preschools; 3e) there is a growing number of preschool student enrollment; 4f) because of the child sduring their early years, 5the Department of Education (DepEd) is not as strict with preschools as with regular grade and high schools; or, 6g) parents are both working and the mother is too busy to give her children their first lessons. 7have become a (Newman 2002). The Due to the mushrooming of preschools grew asthat have been set up forcommercial, business reasons, especially in urban centers, and the government’s insufficient funding towards the enhancement of preschool education, the desired goal of standard quality educati on for young children may not be achieved. This vast, mushrooming, unregulated and still unsurveyed sector maybe violating the right of young children to quality education. Due to the absence of control or regulation, these schools would have unqualified teachers, large classes, and less infrastructure facilities (Newman 2002). Ms. Irene Bernardo, whosingle and now retiredSomeone who prefers to be anony from preschool teaching setismous and who’s up a preschool in her own home after retiring from teaching, stated that some preschool teachers are business or psychology graduates, business or psychology graduates, not education graduates, but business or psychology graduates.. In her case, she has a Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education, magna cum laude, from the Philippine Normal College, ManilaUP, Diliman. For her, it is important for preschool teachers to have a background in education, especially in early childhood development education, which involves a substantial study of the- the psychomotor, affective, psychosocial and cognitive foundations of the childI. Bernardo, m), which will have bearing on the development of the child. which will determine how and what he will be when he grows up. The preschool teacher should also acquire skills and training in educating young children, them. From agesold . (. http://www. sunstar. com. ph/static/ceb/2002/06/13/life/the. mushrooming. of. preschools. html) | | DepEd also issued DECS Form GPR 3-A (revised 2005) to serve as a processing sheet for proposals for opening of new school (see appendix B). It limits the teaching staff requirements for preschool teachers to a Bachelor in Early Childhood Education (BECED); or Bachelor in Elementary Education (BEEd) with 18 units of Early Childhood Education. In public schools, student enrollment grows by 300,000 yearly, and some 10,000 teachers are needed to be hired every year to address the lack of manpower. Out of the 10,000 teachers recommended for hiring annually, 2,500 are intended for government preschools. The hiring of more teachers is needed because President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo has issued an order requiring preschool education nationwide by 2010. (News Balita, January 13, 2006). In preparation for the launching of preschool education in public schools, DepEd business peoplebut . Theireesbetter teacherstudent, she not onlyes but also s: a. Furthermore,havesan degree P. Last August 24, 2007, DepEd issued Order No. 57 on August 24, 2007, laying down or the â€Å"Guidelines on Hiring and Deployment of Preschool Teachers† was issued as additional guidelines forin the selection and deployment of public preschool teachers (see appendix CB). Based on the guidelines, a preschool teacher applicant must must pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) to be eligibleconsidered for teaching. Preschool teachers in order to teach should take the LET for elementary teachers. There is no LET yet yet in specific to preschool teachers; prospective preschool teachers take the LET for elementary teachers. , while there is LET specific to secondary or high school teachers. According to Dr. Rogelio Baybayon, Assistant Superintendent of the Pasig Division office of DepEd, the requirements of the LET and the 21 early childhood education (ECE) units (instead of 18 ECE units) d et al. When I telephoned the Pasig DDivision of public schools to inquire on their policies regarding preschool education, and was able to talk to Dr.Rogelio Baybayuin, the officer-in-charge of preschool education,he said that they do not have preschool programseducation like nursery and prep, and what they have is onlythey only have kindergarten level which is being offered by very few public schools. They do not accept 4 year olds, only 5 year olds for kindergarten, and the 6 year olds are automatically Grade 1 even without going through the kindergarten level or preschool education. Since preschool educations is not yet part of the public school educational ladder. The , unlike the elementary and secondary education, it is mostly in the hands of private individual, organizations and institutions, which are operating without proper government regulations see guidelinescoveringsguidelinesthe renewal of toany administrators when they have been found to v some rules Neri (2001) disclosed a. s Based on the DECS Order No. 107, s.1989 or the Standards for the Organization and Operation of Preschools (Kindergarten Level), the required qualifications for preschool teachers are the following: (1) Bachelor of Science Degree with specialization in family life and child development of early childhood education or kindergarten; (2) BS Degree in Elementary education with 18 units in preschools education and 54 hours of practicum in preschool classes; and (3) Bachelor of Arts or BS degree in a discipline allied to education, arts, nursing, anthropology with 18 units of preschool education (Industry Briefs, October 2001). The job requirements based on the DepEd qualificationss for for preschool teachers are also now being enforced for private schoolsteachers.to be able to teach in preschools. s do not include the licensing or certification, of preschool teachers. However, DepEd sare encouraged requires all public school teachers to undergo the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). .He revealed that there are some private schools which cannot follow these requirements and DepEd is forced to withhold their permit to operate. In any case, even if He also said that the LET for elementary teachers is for general education, and preschool teachers may take it. tTo qualify to teach For the 21 ECE units requirement, Philippine Normal University (PNU) is their reference. ,(pers. com. Dr. R. Baybayon, February 28, 2008). In the recent LET given by the Board of Professional Teachers on September 28, 2008 and conducted in 19 testing centers all over the Philippines, only 17,816 out of 58,471 elementary teacher examineesthere were who passed itThere were o,3who the examination (The Professional Regulation Commission, March 10, 2009). This meansmMan estimated that only 302933% of the examinees are qualified to teach, and are difficulty in the hiring of qualified preschool teachers, mo913,45,56eligible for hiringto hire. Table 2. National Percentage of Passing in the LET | |Teacher-Elementary |Teacher-Secondary | |Year |No. of Examinees |No. of Successful |Percentage of |No. of Examinees |No. of Successful |Percentage of | | | |Examinees |Passing | |Examinees |Passing | |2002 |76,626 |27,060 |35. 32% |65,106 |23,772 |36. 52% | |2003 |75,348 |19,765 |26. 25% |68,992 |18,115 |26. 25% | |2004 |60,614 |16,297 |26. 89% |58,507 |15,860 |27. 11% | |2005 |67,333 |18,517 |27. 50% |61,576 |15,945 |25. 90% | |2006 |59,457 | 17,377 | 29. 23% |53,303 | 17,290 |32. 44% | Former senatorSource: Professional Regulation Commission Licensing of teachers in the private preschools are also being encouraged by the DepEd, an example is the Pasig Catholic College, where their preschool teachers are graduates of early childhood education and are LET passers. The prospect of hiring teachers without credentials may be rampant because of the recent result of the LET. There were few teachers who passed the LET given by the Board of Professional Teachers on August 27, 2006 in 18 testing centers all over the Philippines. It showed that there were only 17,277 elementary public school teachers out of the 59,457 examinees who successfully passed. (Manila Standard Today, October 10, 2006). This is an estimated 33% who are qualified to teach in the public elementary schools and these may not be enough considering the growing number of student enrollment in public elementary schools which accounts to 12,089,365 based on Basic Education Statistics (BES) SY2004-2005. In view of the above, howHow can both private and public schools get teachers who can meet the minimum requirements for teaching in preschools and how can the DepEd ensure that only well-qualified, licensed preschool teachers educators are being hired and will be available in every preschool classroom.? How does the private and public schools cope with the supply and demand of qualified preschool teachers? Student enrollment is increasing and there are not enough qualified teachers to teacher these students. What other options can the government doy take in addressing hiring teachers without credentials? How can the preschoolsy tap sources of potential preschool teachers? has the government . annually . whomis afigure Trequiring nationwide. The combined public and private preschool enrollment increased from 2003 to 2007, from 778, 550831,730 (18. 36%) in school year 2003-2004 to 999,59652,109 (20. 53%) in school year 20076-20087; or 221120,046379 school children were added to the system. More than half of these children (588,81857, 220) were with DepEd’s preschool program in school year 2007-2008 (DepEd Updates, March 22, 20097). Mrs. Mariquita de Guzman, Assistant Principal of San Miguel Elementary School, said that their school has four preschool teachers for their 132 kindergarten students with a teacher to student ratio of 1:48. Miss Letty Flores, preschool teacher of Maybunga Elementary School, said that their school has two preschool teachers for the 90 kindergarten students with a teacher to student ratio of 1:45. All of their preschool teachers were volunteers from the elementary level who have a degree in elementary education (pers. com. Mrs. M. de Guzman and Ms. L. Flores, April 15, 2009). In some private preschools, principals wait until the enrollment has begun before they decide to hire teachers. As a result, teachers hired are not qualified. only a few qualified teachers are available and teacher to student ratio becomes to 1:50 (pers. com. Mrs. Susan Garcia, April 16, 2009). ). To address the teacher shortage in the public schools (including preschools), Education Secretary Jesli Lapus announced that 16,390 new teachers would be hired for the year 2007. (The Manila Times, June 4, 2007). lat thsover This e concern for the hiring of preschool teachers will create more pressuresnot likely abate in the near future because the pressures on that strain the local supply and ddemand for and supply ofof qualified teachers. With the increase in becausewill increase more and more private individuals and institutions will are venturinging into the preschool business education, and the institutionalization of preschool education by 2010, that will require more qualified preschool teachers will be requiredto support DepEd’s effort in institutionalizing preschool education.. . Human capital is the most important resource of any service organization, and the teacher is the most important capital in the educational setting. There are many nonhuman resources that are needed in the schools such as classrooms, computers, and textbooks, but these resources are dependent on competent teachers who will put them into good use. The preschool is a labor-intensive operation where the teacher’s knowledge, skills, abilities, stamina, values, and passion must be carefully managed to achieve its learning objectives (Hearron and Hildebrand 2003). However, in order to achieve its learning objectives, they should hire teachers who possess proper qualifications who can provide learning opportunities that will bring out the best in their students. epartment of ducation, ulture and ports (DECS)A major task of the artment of ucation (DepEd)school administrator is faculty hiring and selecting qualified and committed teachers is a more critical task considering the scarcity of qualified applicants. Teacher qualifications remains to be an issue and with the recent results of the Licensure Examination for Teachers given by the Board of Professional Teachers on August 27, 2006 in 18 testing centers all over the Philippines, there were only 17,277 elementary public school teachers out of 59,457 examinees who successfully passed. (Manila Standard Today, October 10, 2006). This is an estimated 33% who are qualified to teach in the public elementary schools and there may not be enough considering there the growing growing student enrollment in public elementary schools which accounts to 12,089,365 based on Basic Education Statistics (BES) SY2004-2005. However, in the private preschools but they should meet the minimum required in order to the desired qualifications which is:,need to prepare job descriptions that state the criteria like the applicant â€Å"(1) Bachelor of Science Degree with specialization in family life and child development of early childhood education or kindergarten; (2) BS Degree in Elementary education with 18 units in preschools education and 54 hours of practicum in preschool classes; (3) Bachelor of Arts or BS degree in discipline allied to education, arts, nursing, anthropology with 18 units of preschool education† (Industry Briefs, October 2001). Hiring the right faculty is building the future. It is essential that utmost care and attention be given to hiring standards and policies and that execution be done with creativity and patience, since the hiring process is tedious and time-consuming, thus there should be no shortcuts. As the philosopher Spinoza observed at the end of his great work, The Ethics, â€Å"†¦all things worthwhile are difficult as they are rare† (A Re-Examination of Faculty Hiring Processes and Procedures, Academic Senate for California Community Colleges, Adopted Fall 2000). The term â€Å"faculty† is defined as a branch of teaching or learning in an educational institution; something in which one is trained or qualified; the members of a profession; or the teaching and administrative staff and those members of the administration having the academic rank in an education institution (Merriam Webster 1991). The faculty is composed of all persons appointed for the instruction of students. In a preschool, the faculty or teachers are persons directly involved in handling children. They play a major role in the education of the children since they help in the formation and development of the students especially in their early years. They are responsible for providing environment conducive to learning conditions where children are given opportunities to interact. Thus, the faculty or preschool teachers significantly contribute to humanity and to the nation towards prosperity by providing learning opportunities that will bring out the best in their students. Hiring is engaging the services or labor in exchange for payment (Lexicon Webster 1978. ). Hiring involves the following steps: advertising, recruiting; screening; interviewing; teaching demo, selecting and final interview. Recruitment is defined as establishing a pool of potentially acceptable applicants (Lipham and Heoh, 1974 p. 236). The first step is usually to post (advertise) the job position usually in bulletin boards of universities, professional organizations, advertise in local newspapers and teacher based magazines. Once the school recruitment officer has received the letters of applications, the rest of the hiring process is accomplished. Faculty hiring is the recruitment and selection of teachers for teaching positions. It involves the following steps: advertising, recruiting; screening; interviewing; teaching demo; selecting and final interview. Faculty hiring is a major task of the administrative or leadership group of the school and selecting the right teacher is a more critical task considering the very few qualified applicants to choose from. Administrators need to prepare job descriptions that state the minimum as well as desired qualifications of a preschool teacher, these are: (1) Bachelor of Science Degree with specialization in family life and child development of early childhood education or kindergarten; (2) BS Degree in Elementary education with 18 units in preschools education and 54 hours of practicum in preschool classes; (3) Bachelor of Arts or BS degree in discipline allied to education, arts, nursing, anthropology with 18 units of preschool education. † (Neri October 2001) â€Å"The teachers we need are immersed in discipline, informed professional inquiry and action that results in raising the bar and closing the gap by engaging all students in learning† (Fullan 2003). The preschool administrator or principal is usually the one in charge of recruiting the right teachers to fill in teaching positions clearly defined and understood by the selectors, i. e. there is a good and clear job description. The competencies to perform the job successfully are explicit, i. e. the job criteria or person specification have been prepared and are known by the selectors. There is a planned provision for the assessment of all the required competencies, i. e.the technical assessment stages have been clearly conceived and scheduled. There is a clear policy on how the final decisions are to be arrived at and the final stage procedure ensures that all of the evidence of earlier stages is accumulated and considered before making a judgment† (Kydd 1997). Although it can be time-consuming, principals must actively recruit good teachers to their schools. They usually do this by: (1) visiting teacher education classes to find promising new teachers; (2) providing practicum to student teachers and later hire the good ones; (3) talking to teachers and other principals to find quality experienced teachers who might be looking for new positions. Hiring policies and practices should be carefully crafted so fairness and equity are reflected to avoid legal complaints in the future. Applicants should be notified whether they were accepted or denied and the reasons why they were not accepted. â€Å"Hiring the right faculty is building the future because teachers play a major role in the education of children; they help in the formation and development of children, some of whom will become future leaders of tomorrow. But the right faculty may not mean hiring having a certification or licensure, but one who has a strong commitment to the care and education of young children. There is no wiser or more enduring investment than in the care and education of young children. worthwhile The Research Problem. DDue to the number mushrooming being put up and the government’s move to institutionalizeeize preschool education by year 2010, in Metro Manila and in the provinces without control or regulation, hiring would is in all probabilitymay be increasingly be intenserampant. DepEd’s hiring guidelines for preschool teachers prescribe only the minimum qualifications;;, but there are no clear-cut guidelines on the screening and hiring process for preschool teachers. these schools tend to hire preschool teachers who are not qualified. There is a need to carefully managed preschools to ensure that the intellectual development and values formation of childrenThus, there is a need forere should be specific and customized procedures for  screening applicants and hiring areistowardforqualified preschool teachers who are trained to address the unique learning and developmental needs of preschoolers. (Berk 2005; Branscombe et al. 2000; Brewer 2004; Essa 2003; Estes 2004; Machado and Meyer-Botnarescue 2001). However, Taguiwalo (2005) reported that recruitment is the number one weakness of the Philippine basic education. and eEvery year for the past five years, public schools recruited around 10,000 to 15,000 teachers from a pool of 100,000 new graduates. ,Yet the schools do not always get the best qualified teachers, as evidenced by the poor student achievement test results. they Results of the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) in SY 2005-2006 reflected that only 29 percent or 38 of 131 competencies/skills were demonstrated by children. The problem of poor quality of education has been traced to a number of factors which include lack of teacher competencies and poor manpower planning (UNESCO and National Statistical Coordination Board 2009). How can DepEd ensure that only qualified and competent preschool teachers will handle every preschool class? HHoH will be assured hiring of professionally well prepared preschool teachers who are committed to caring and educating young children.. Preschool teacher hiring will not be easy considering the scarcity of qualified teachers. ow then can then school administrators ensure that they that they hire qualified and competent preschool teachers who can How can they tap available sources of prospective preschool teachers present? To seek answerss to the research problem, se questions, â€Å"The government, through the Department of Education (DepED), should come up with clear-cut policies on the operation of these schools offering pre-school education to children aged three to six years old,† Chipeco added. (http://www. congress. gov. ph/press/details. php? pressid=931) DepEd should also develop measures seeking not only to regulate and oversee the pre-schools, but also to develop preschool teachers hiring guidelines. DepEd should conduct investigation and close down preschools that do not use the guidelines. thus early childhood education is regarded as their top priority. â€Å"Childhood should be carefully defined in all nations as a highly distinct period of human growth and development that deserves careful educational, social, and political attention and intervention. † (Jalongo, et al 2004) However, Nolido (2006) said . While the government is not yet capable of putting preschool education in the educational ladder, we would like to expand it to reach more five year-old kids particularly in the depressed areas of the country. .. Jalongo, et al 2004et al, page 23number Educational prog for the world’s youngest citizen teachers who are ,m ? Will there be enough preschool teachers who will teach this growing number of student enrollmentissues in the Philippine basic and (LET) (NAT) private preschools hire applicantsare not education graduates or licensed? private . To seek answers to these questions, I will e researcheris Another issue which is very timely is the campaign of the Department of Education to institutionalize preschool education in public schools. Nolido said preschool education is not yet part of the educational ladder. Institutionalizing it requires a huge budget to the basic education system. â€Å"While the government is not yet capable of putting preschool education in the educational ladder, we would like to expand its coverage to reach more five year-old kids particularly in the depressed areas of the country,† Nolido said. and also the current issues in the Philippine educational systemthe Thus the objective of thisresearch willof the study revieweds and compareds the currentGrowing demand for preschool teacher applicants can be attested to the increasing number of student enrollments and the mushrooming of preschools in the metropolis. Drive along any neighborhood and you will likely pass by one, whether it is a small home-based play school or a more structured organization in a bigger edifice. The latest directory of private preschools in Metro Manila from the Department of Education shows that there are (872) preschools all over the capital region alone. Of this total, (217) are exclusively preschools only, defined here as catering to either the one-year-old to 6-year-old age bracket or the kindergarten level which may also include levels preparatory to kindergarten (e. g. nursery, etc. The remaining (55) schools offer elementary education up to 6th grade, in addition to the preschool curriculum. Quezon City has the most number of preschools with 275, followed by Manila with 112. Proximity to residence is criterion parents often consider when choosing schools for their children, however there are many other factors to bear in mind in deciding which school is best† (Neri 2001). Public and private preschools resort to hiring teachers to fill in the demand for teaching positions. The Department of Education has recommended guidelines for hiring preschool teachers, which the public preschools should implement while the private preschools are encouraged to use. Thus, the main research problem of this study is to compare standards, policies, and practices (SPPs) in hiring preschool teachers in preschool andpublic schools with those of privateprivate schools in Pasig City ,and , then compareds each group’s SPPs with offering preschool education with the standards, policies and practices in hiring teachers in private preschools in Pasig City the recommended SPPs in hiring preschool teachers based on related literature, DepEd requirements, and the views of experts on preschools. point out the gaps or discrepancies between the mandated and actual faculty hiring standards, policies and practices of public and private preschools in Pasig City. Secondly, I would like to understand the nature and causes of the gaps, and thirdly, I would like to understand why such gaps have been permitted to exist until the present. Purposess of the Study create awareness among the policymakers, DepEd officials, private preschool owners, and preschool principals The purpose of the study soughtoughtis to (1) investigate the SPPstandards in for hiring preschool teachers in selected public and private schools in Pasig City; (2)and pinpoint commonalities and differences in their current hiring SPPs; and, (3) find out how they measure up to what is recommended in the scientific literature, at DepEd, and by experts. Thus, this study has drawn upwilldetermine whether standards are in line with preschool learning capabilities and requirement for primary grades. s appropriate hiring SPPs for both public and private preschools that can serve ases benchmarks for hiring preschool teachers to ensure that the goal of getting the best qualified preschool teachers is met. Theensure that both public and private schools offering preschool education in Pasig City are able to hire the most qualified and competent preschool teachers and that ensure that there are standards, policies and practices in hiring preschool teachers in public and private schools in Pasig City. is that they together withmajority if not alleto review and reexamine their preschool teaching hiring standards, policies and practices. This assist in the hiring of preschool teacherswill enfrom a wider market and whose qualifications meet the preschool learning competencies. Research Questions In order to answer the research problem, the following research questions were looked intoarewere: †¢ What are the recommended faculty hiring SPPsstandards, policies, and practices for preschool teachers based on related literature, DepEd guidelines, and the views of experts and administrators? †¢ What are the reported and/or actual hiring SPPsfaculty hiring standards, policies, and practices for preschool teachers in both of public and private schools in Pasig City offering ECE? †¢ How do the reported and/or actual faculty hiring SPPstandards, policies.

Piagets and Vygotskys explanation

Piagets and Vygotskys explanation In this essay I will be outlining the main differences and similarities between Piagets and Vygotskys explanation of cognitive development in children. Cognition is the study of the thought process or mental activity by which us individuals acquire and deal with knowledge. The study of the human cognition is a vast field and there are wide varieties of topics. The two most influential theories of cognitive development are from Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Each of their theory has key aspects of cognitive development across childhood. Firstly, according to Siegler (1998), Piagets theory of cognitive development is considered the most important to emerge from the study of human development, and the most controversial theory as well, according to Beilin (1992). Piagets observations of children provide a remarkable inside for what cognitive development is supposed to be like (Siegler, 1998). He provided answers to questions regarding intelligence and how one develops their knowledge. He believed that children develop in reaction to their environment, and the rewards and punishments it provides, Piaget argued that children actively explore their worlds, and their thoughts are ultimately derived from the actions of the world. Children according to him construct their reality as they manipulate and explore their world, cognitive structures which Piaget termed schemes. A scheme is an interrelated set of memories, thoughts, or strategies which are employed to predict and understand the environment. He believed that as children grow, they develop and refine their schemes. Central to Piagets theory are two biological concept, adaption and organization. Organization refers to an individuals tendency to organize their cognitive structures or schemes into efficient systems (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). Organization can take place independent of any interaction with the environment. He believes that children naturally begin to link schemes together, creating more organized and interrelated cognitive system. For example, infants eventually begin to link together schemes developed for reaching, grasping and sucking objects, combining these into more complex structures that can be generalized to other situations and thus further their ability to negotiate the environment. Initially they cant combine these actions, but through the process of organization they become able to do so. This brings us to the concept of adaption. Adaption involves the creation of cognitive structure or schemes through our interactions with the environment. Adaption is achieved through assimilation or accommodation (Piaget, 1952). Assimilation is the process of integrating the environment into ones current psychological structures (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). When the child assimilates something, they mould it to fit in with their existing structures. Accommodation is the opposite process, it occurs when old schemes are adjusted to fit better fit with the demands of the environment. For example, the infant sees an object lying on the floor; they can assimilate into her experience, applying her grasping scheme. The infant then encounters another object, a smaller one this time such as a plastic token, they are then forced to accommodate to the object, altering their grasp in order to be able to pick up the token. According to Piaget (1952) there are times when we are able to assimilate most new experiences, other times we are forced to accommodate and adapt our structures to the environment and thats when we enter into a state called cognitive disequilibrium, also k nown as, cognitive conflict. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believe that development started off with cognitive conflict. The process of equilibration, continual balance, leads to the development of more efficient cognitive structures (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). Similarly Vygotsky developed his own theory of cognitive development in children. However, he made an emphasis on the cultural context in which human development occurs. Like Piaget, Vygotsky was strongly committed to the idea that children were active explorers of their world who tested their ideas against reality, seeking to expand their knowledge. It is said that Vygotsky compares a child to an apprentice, whereas Piaget compares them to a scientist. However, unlike Piaget, who viewed children essentially as solitary figures involved in the construction of knowledge, Vygotsky believed that the childs social environment was an active force in their development, working to mould childrens growing knowledge in ways that were adaptive to the wider culture in which they grow up. Vygotskys perspective on child development is referred to as the socio-cultural view because of his emphasis on the childs culture and the social environment as forces which shape development. Vygotsky was a st rong advocate for the developmental method, unlike Piaget, who concentrated on the origins of mental processes and the transformations which they have to undergo. Vygotsky was obstinate in his belief that an individuals cognitive development was largely a social process, and not an individualistic construction as Piaget believed. Also unlike Piaget, Vygotsky focused on interactions with parents, siblings, peers, and the wider culture, who were more highly skilled than the child. And he believed that through the interaction with the child and through the instruction and assistance they provided, the childs cognitive development would be promoted. He believed that learning begins as an inter-personal activity. Whereby, gradually the learner is able to perform independently. Also his theory included the scaffolding learning, where the support is provided by teacher on specific task. It allows the learner to perform at a higher level. At any given point in the learning process, there is a difference between the level achieved when assisted and when alone, also known as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The scaffolding learning of Vygotskys method is still being used in this century because all over primary schools, children are still being assisted; however when they progress unto a stage where they feel co mfortable in their ability, the teacher or individual with higher knowledge gradually withdraws support according to process. He also believed that children acquire tools invented by society to support thinking in children, also known as the cultural tools, for example calculators, books and computers. Similarly to Piaget, Vygotsky believed that childrens egocentric speech was a part of their cognitive development. However, the two have different perspectives on how they viewed the purpose of egocentric speech. Piagets Egocentric speech suggests that the childs self centred and unable to consider the point of view of others. Whereas, Vygotskys Egocentric speech is seen as a transition between the childrens learning language in a social communicative context and attempting to internalize it as a private inner thought. Alongside that Piaget developed stages of child development through clinical methods because he felt development precedes learning. The stages of cognitive development are, the sensori-motor period (0-2 years) where children achieve represential thought, the pre-operational period (2-7 years) childrens reasoning is often illogical, after is the concrete operational period (7-11 years), children are able to reason about current, concrete situations, lastly the formal op erations stage (11-15) where children can reason about hypothetical situations. Piaget believed that the pre-operational stage is a time during early childhood when children start to reason, build concepts, and lay the foundation for concrete operations. Operations are initialized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what was done physically before. (Santrock, 2003). Piaget believed that illogical reasoning was due to: Animism, lack of reversibility, Egocentrism and Centration. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky paid little attention to the role of the individual. He did not focus on the stages of development or the ages at which these might occur. However, like Piaget he did see the child as an active participant in learning rather than a passive recipient of information from other people. Both these theories share ideas about how a child starts to develop their cognitive skills. But they both understand it differently. The nature of Piagets investigations contrasts with the cultural-historical approach of Vygotskys research. Piaget is more concerned with the development of universal processes for the validation of knowledge, and Vygotsky is more focused on psycho-socio-historical genesis and its interpretations. Although these psychologists have received a lot of critics about which aspect of development they put more emphasis in, they have still contributed to our understanding of child cognitive development. It is only through their research and theory that others are able to progress onto finding out further details about how a childs mentality develops. Vygotsky and Piaget are often presented as opposites. However, a careful read of their theories reveals that they are not as dissimilar as they are presented to be (DeVries; Matusov Hayes, 2000).

Skin Cancer :: essays research papers

Skin Cancer Of all different kinds of cancer, skin cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers in the United States. Skin cancer is a disease which cancer cells are found on the outer layers of the skin. Your skin protects the body from heat, infection, light, injury and infection. It also stores fat, water, and vitamin D. The skin has two layers and several different kinds of cells. With a certain lifestyle these cells can become cancerous.(Prodigy Web Browser: An Introduction to skin Cancer {NET}, 1997) Melanoma is associated with the highest case-fatality rate of all skin cancers.(Mortality and Morbility Weekly Report Vol. 45/No. 17 , {MMWR}, 1996) Numerous studies have delineated the natural history of skin cancers. Some cell carcinomas tend to grow and invade slowly and steadily. Certain subtypes are more aggressive, and certain sites of occurrence (scalp, shoulders and nose) are associated with worse cases. Malignant melanoma may have a thin stage, in which survival rates are excellent. The length of thin, or radial, growth phase may be months to years. If untreated at some point melanoma enters a quick growth phase. When this occurs the survival rates plummet.(Brandt, 1996) Skin Cancer can be avoided. A change in lifestyle can reduce the risk of skin cancer. This includes awareness of the reality of skin cancer, avoiding the sun, and self-examination and screening. Most of the time when people think of a serious disease they think of things like lung cancer, heart disease, sexually transmitted diseases, and other hot topic diseases of that nature. Skin cancer awareness and the seriousness of skin cancer is far less emphasized. The MMWR did a survey of knowledge of and awareness about melanoma in the united states in 1995. In 1996, an estimated 38,300 cases of melanoma were diagnosed, and an approximately 7300 melanoma deaths would occur . Intervention strategies can be developed with information and public awareness of melanoma. (MMWR) To help awareness and public knowledge about melanoma, the American Academy of Dermatology conducted a nation wide survey in 1995. (shown in appendix A) This report summarizes the survey findings, which indicate that a high proportion (42%) of respondents had no knowledge about melanoma. The level of awareness was lowest among persons aged 18 to 24 years of age.(MMWR) Respondents were asked "Can you tell me what melanoma is?"; 55% knew it was a type of cancer, 34% knew it was a type of skin cancer and 42% did not know about melanoma. After being informed on melanoma, they identified at least one risk factor of it. Most identified the risk

Origin of the Number Zero Essay -- systems, number, cultures, symbols

As ancient numerical systems came to be and evolved over time, so did the number zero. Zero did not seem to be an obvious start to the natural numbers to the mathematicians who pioneered the different number systems of the past. Having a symbol that meant basically â€Å"nothing† appeared in a few cultures but usually long after the initial creation of the culture’s number system and sometimes was a controversial idea. (Textbook) The delay in adding zero to the number systems was most likely because in most cultures the earliest number systems were additive. This meant that they had symbols to represent certain numbers and merely added them all together to achieve the desired number. The symbols could be arranged in any order. This type of system did not require a symbol to represent zero in order to make any other numbers. Such systems are limited and eventually evolved into systems where the position of the symbols in a number changed its meaning. These positional systems are part of what created a need for a â€Å"place holder† symbol, which later would become the number zero. (Textbook, scientificamerican.com article) For example, the Egyptian’s Hieroglyphic number system was additive and had no zero symbol. It dated back as far is 3500 B.C. and is one of the earliest known number systems. This system used pictures to represent the numbers 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc. Since order did not matter, the Egyptians did not even need a symbol to represent an empty space. Eventually the Egyptians created their hieratic system. The Hieratic was a more difficult system with more symbols (1-10, 20, 30, etc.) but still did not employ a symbol to represent zero as a number. There is evidence that Egyptians used their symbol for â€Å"good† ... ... small circle was used for the number zero. (Kaplan) Independently, the Mayans created multiple symbols for the number zero in their vigesimal (base 20) number system. The Mayan culture was at its peak from 300 B.C. to 900 A.D. and during this time there are many examples of glyphs used to represent zero. The most common was a stylized shell. Others included faces, animals, flowers, and different types of shells. (Kaplan) The number zero now has many uses besides being the smallest natural number. It is used in set theory, logic (0 is used as the truth value for false), category theory, etc. Its position as the origin in graphs and number lines is essential to bridge the gap between negative and positive numbers. It is obvious that without it mathematics as we know it would not exist and though its creation seemed to have been delayed it was inevitable.

The Story of Jesus Through Matthews Gospel Essay -- God Religion Jesu

The Story of Jesus Through Matthew's Gospel   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Who is this man Jesus? Where was he from? What did he do for others and us? A great source of reference to answer this question would be someone who had direct contact with him in everyday life. Someone who saw the daily wonders he created would be the best source for information. Matthew, the apostle, is believed to have written the gospel of Matthew. He was able to experience firsthand all of the amazing miracles that Jesus performed. God inspired his words, and his gospel relates to the other three gospels in overall context. They were written in different formats and styles, but the overall message and story remains constant throughout all four gospels. This creates a strong reliability that gives confidence in Matthew’s knowledge of Jesus. If the author of the gospel of Matthew was someone other than Matthew, the writings still tell an excellent story of the life of Jesus regardless of who wrote it. Therefore, the story of Jesus can be told through Mat thew and his gospel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Matthew begins his gospel with a genealogy of Jesus that traces his existence back to Abraham. This direct line of heritage back to Abraham shows the fulfillment of God’s promise through Jesus. In Genesis 15:5, God promises Abraham descendants as numerous as the stars. These descendants, who make up the people of Israel, were promised a child to be named Emmanuel (â€Å"God with us†) in Isaiah 7:14. Matthew’s gospel tells how Jesus, the child of God who will be with us forever, fulfills the promise that was given by God many years before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Matthew tells of the birth of Jesus to conclude the first chapter. Jesus surely is the Son of God because Mary conceived him even though she had no knowledge of man. In Matthew 1:20, God spoke to Joseph in a dream through an angel telling him of his intentions for Jesus and his family. Because Matthew tells of this story, he clarifies Jesus’ uniqueness from the beginning. Jesus is the Son of God who fulfills all of God’s promises, and he will change the world forever.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Matthew further depicts Jesus as the Savior of the world when he tells of the wise men coming to visit him as a baby in Bethlehem. The wise men were surely blessed because they took notice of the once in a lifetime miracle that took place in Bethlehem. Matthew 2:6 says, â€Å"for from you shall come a ruler who is to S... ...ically stay with the people for long, so he knew that he must direct them as to what to do in order to keep the message of God alive in the world forever. To conclude the gospel, Matthew records Jesus as saying, â€Å"Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age.† Jesus gave them the confidence and ability to continue the work of God by blessing them in this way. They carried on his message of the greatness of God for as long as they lived, and also passed it on to the next generation to share with the future. These stories of the works of Jesus written by Matthew tell of a marvelous man, who was God present among everyone on earth. He spoke and acted with wisdom, and his ministry proved that God’s love surpasses everything. Whoever was unfamiliar with Jesus would have an excellent understanding of his life and purpose after reading the gospel of Matthew. The message of the kingdom of God will live on forever through the life of Jesus. Bibliography Bible - New James Version

Proposal Online Banking

There has been a fundamental shift in the use of banking delivery channels toward self-service channels such the Internet [Hernandez-Ortega, 2007]. Internet banking, which was introduced in the early 1990s [Srivastava, 2007], makes it possible to replace the manual service functions provided by bank employees, along with the brick and mortar investment required of financial institutions [Dandapani, et al. , 2008]. It represents an electronic marketplace where consumers may conduct their financial transactions virtually [Reiser, 1997; Daniel, 1999].Today, financial service institutions that offer their services over the Internet are keen to accelerate the adoption process, knowing that the cost of delivering the service over the Internet is much less than delivering the same service over-the-counter [Polatoglu and Ekin, 2001]. In addition, Internet banking is an important innovation that presents institutions a vital distribution channel, which could act as a means of attaining compet itive advantage through cost reduction and better satisfaction of customer needs [Carrington, et al.  , 1997; Kassim and Abdulla, 2006; Mols, 1999].In response to the increased competition, banks in Malaysia are starting to leverage the Internet as a means to provide financial services. An empirical study by Sulaiman, et al. [2005] suggests that the adopters' perceptions of e-banking in developing countries appear to be very favorable. In Malaysia, however, despite the authorities? encouragement to the public to adopt Internet banking, traditional branch-based retail banking remains the most common method for conducting banking transactions.For example, Sivanand, et al.  [2004] found that, although more than 80% of their respondents were aware of Internet banking, less than 10% were currently using the services. With regard to information technology adoption, previous studies have suggested that the set of beliefs that influences an individual to adopt the technology may not be the same as the set of beliefs that leads to his or her initial adoption [Venkatesh, et al. , 2003]. According to Kruglanski and Klar [1985], each time a particular goal of an individual is achieved by a specific behavior, the cognitive link  between the behavior and goal becomes stronger.The result is a cognitive goal-behavior link that creates an automatic response behavior (i. e. , habit). This may suggest that factors that are considered by an individual in the initial stage of adoption may be different from the factors that are considered by him or her after using the technology. Repurchasing intention is one of the important constructs being studied by researchers [Soderlund and Ohman, 2003].Zeithaml, et al.  [1996] suggest that repurchasing intention is associated with a service provider?s ability to get its customers to remain loyal (i. e. , repurchase from the company), spend more with the company, and pay price premiums. In online business, the founder of Amazon. com, Jeff Bezos, noted that one way to build a relationship with customers is by observing their purchase behavior over time [Porter, 1998]. In another aspect, previous literature has highlighted numerous barriers to the adoption of Internet banking.One local finding suggests that the adoption of Internet banking is not so encouraging in Malaysia mainly because of factors such as lack of Internet accessibility, poor awareness, and security concerns [Suganthi, et al. , 2001]. Although there is sufficient evidence that the electronic revolution has commenced in Malaysia, Internet banking research, however, is still in its infancy, particularly with regard to the predictors of intention among current users to continue using the services.This study was undertaken, therefore, to better understand the predictors that may influence current Internet banking users to continue using these services. This paper attempts to determine predictors that may influence the current users of Internet banking to continue using the services. Based on the literature reviewed, we strongly believe that trust, compatibility, and ease of use are key predictors of their intention to continue using Internet banking services. The current users of Internet banking services in Klang Valley, Malaysia, were chosen as the population of this study.1.1 Research Question The objective of this study attempts to answer the following research question: Whether Internet banking services in Klang Valley Malaysia is accepted the Internet banking services for the country growth. Whether Internet banking services could improve the performance in Klang Valley in  Malaysia?1. 2 Problem Statement The explosion of internet usage and the huge funding initiatives in electronic banking have drawn the attention of researchers towards internet banking. (Yi-Shun Wang, Yu-Min Wang, Hsin-Hui Lin, Tzung-I Tang, (2003)) Point out the need for research to identify the factor that determine acceptance of internet banking by the user.  (Yi-Shun Wang, Yu-Min Wang, Hsin-Hui Lin, Tzung-I Tang, (2003))This study focuses on the adoption of Internet banking services by corporate customers in Malaysia and aims to gain a deeper understanding of the factors influencing the adoption of Internet banking services by Malaysian, particularly in Klang Valley customers. (Syed Shah Alam, Rosidah Musa, Faridah Hassan, (2009))1.3 Objective of the StudyThe objective of this project is to study effect of Internet banking services in Klang valley Malaysia on determinant of user acceptance of internet banking. Based on this goal, I have come up with sub-objectives to find out the determinants. The main objective why this study is being undertaken is to analyze whether the internet banking is accepted by people at Klang Valley in Malaysia. To determine that people in Klang Valley can adobe and can used it to improve their bank performance in the future.1.4 Significant of the StudyThis information is at least be able to provi de knowledge to researcher and me as well whether there is effect of financial risk management on financial sector performance in Malaysia and also how far the correlation between it.1.4.2 Investor This knowledge can be used by investor about the impact of financial risk management on financial sector in Malaysia when they need to make a certain decision1.4.3 To Generate Further Research With this study and other thousands research, it would be best to generate more knowledge for the future. As done by past professors and researchers, which now are being updated and improved to adapt to new environment and modern civilization. Not all past research can be reliable in the future, that’s why it is important to continuously keep it updated.1.5 Scope of Study The scope of this study are consist of banks in Malaysia and will focus in major area which is in Klang Valley. These studies are based bank in Klang Valley Malaysia. The data is a primary data and will be gathered directly from customer at the area.CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 Introduction Basically, in this chapter will briefly explain in detail regarding the previous researches that have been done on overall topics about the determinants of user acceptance of internet banking ; an empirical study Klang Valley in Malaysia. There are several arguments favors and against on this debating issues that had been discover through previous studies.2.1 Previous studiesLichtenstein and Williamson from Australian (2006)Used mass media theories through individual and focus group discussion to determine the decision of internet banking adoption. Findings showed that Australian older people with low income reported themselves were lack of awareness towards internet banking and its advantage, lack of internet lack of internet access and internet confidence, inadequate knowledge and support to use or initial setting up procedure, lack of trust, security and privacy risks were among the reasons of not using inter net banking services.Aktas and Topcu from Turkey (2010)Found that security and reliability were among the important factor that influences the adoption of internet banking. This followed by infrastructural competencies and user friendliness among respondents with accessibility to internet, aged 20 to 45, higher level of education and socioeconomic class. The study used Multi-criteria decision aid-based (MCDA-based).Suganthi and Balachandran from Malaysia (2001)Focused on the factors of accessibility, reluctance to changes, costs, trust in one’s bank, security concerns, convenience, ease of use through online survey that potentially influence internet banking adoption. The results revealed that there were positive significant relationships between accessibility, reluctance to changes and awareness with internet banking adoption.Chung and Payter from Malaysia (2002)Study the information, legal statement, order, ease of use, aesthetics effects, performance and others elements of bank that provide internet banking. The study found that a negative significant relationship between age and internet banking adoption among Klang Valley adopters. Monthly gross income and job position level had positive significant relationship with internet banking adoption among Klang Valley adopters. Further, there was no significant relationship between gender, marital status, ethnic group, level  of education with internet banking adoption.Khalil and Pearson from Malaysia (2007)Applied theory of diffusion of innovation (IDT) (Rogers, 1995) that focused on five key belief (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trial ability and obeservability) and trust (Mayers et al., 1995) to explore the intention to use internet banking among university students. The results of structural equation modeling showed that trust, relative advantage and trial ability significantly influence attitude. The attitude was play as moderator that influences intention to use technology that is internet banking.CHAPTER THREE DATA AND METHODOLOGY3.0 IntroductionThis chapter will focus on the method that will applied, where the procedures is clearly stated and defined. The data section clearly elaborate on the process of collecting data that needs to be obtained in order to perform the tests while the methodology section elaborates on the types of methods or tests that will be performed in order to determine the effective results.3.1 QuestionnaireData that used in this study is by using the number of 300 executive level peoples with a questionnaire investigation. This is based on the primary data that been collect and obtain by the executive level people in the area.3.2 Research Model and Hypotheses1. Perceived usefulness 2. Perceived ease of used 3. Perceived credibility3.3 Computer Self-EfficacyIn general, prior research has suggested a positive relationship between experience with computing technology and a variety of outcomes such as an affect towards computers and comp uter usage (Levin and Gordon, 1989; Harrison and Rainer, 1992; Agarwal and Prasad, 1999). A related construct, called computer self-efficacy, has been examined in the IS literature (e.g. Compeau and Higgins, 1995; Compeau et al., 1999; Hong et al., 2001). Computer self-efficacy is defined as the judgment of one’s ability to use a computer (Compeau and Higgins, 1995).3.4 Research Framework The research framework in this study provides a picture regarding the relationship between Computer Self-Efficiency, Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and Perceived Credibility to Behavior Intention. The Computer Self- Efficacy is the main thing to develop to the three and becoming the Behavior Intention. The figure below will show the relationship of the variables.3.5 Research Model This section will briefly explain the research model and methodology related to this research on the determinant of user acceptance of internet banking : an imperial study Klang Valley in Malaysia. Th e research model will be used to find the relationship between the three factors and will achieved the objectives of this study.3.6 Method usedDescriptive statisticThe following definitions are vital in understanding descriptive statistics: C Variables are quantities or qualities that may assume any one of a set of values. Variables may be classified as nominal, ordinal, or interval. — Nominal variables use names, categories, or labels for qualitative values. Typical nominal variables include gender, ethnicity, job title, and so forth. — Ordinal variables, like nominal variables, are categorical variables. However, the order or rank of the categories is meaningful.For example, staff members may be asked to indicate their satisfaction with a training course on an ordinal scale ranging from â€Å"poor† to â€Å"excellent. † Such categories could be converted to a numerical scale for further analysis. — Interval variables are purely numeric variables. The nominal and ordinal variables noted above are discrete since they do not permit making statements about degree, e. g. , â€Å"Person A is three times more male than person B† or â€Å"Person A rated the course as five times more excellent than person B.†Interval variables are continuous, and the difference between values is both meaningful and allows statements about extent or degree. Income and age are interval variables. C Frequency distributions summarize and compress data by grouping them into classes and recording how many data points fall into each class. The frequency distribution is the foundation of descriptive statistics. It is a prerequisite for the various graphs used to display data and the basic statistics used to describe a data set, such as the mean, median, mode, variance, standard deviation, etc. (See the module on Frequency Distribution for more information.)C. Measures of Central Tendency indicate the middle and commonly occurring points in a d ata set. The three main measures of central tendency are discussed below. — Mean is the average, the most common measure of central tendency. The mean of a population is designated by the Greek letter mu (F). The mean of a sample is designated by the symbol x-bar (0). The mean may not always be the best measure of central tendency, especially if data are skewed. For example, average income is often misleading since those few individuals with extremely high incomes may raise the overall average.  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Median is the value in the middle of the data set when the measurements are arranged in order of magnitude.For example, if 11 individuals were weighed and their weights arranged in ascending or descending order, the sixth value is the median since five values fall both above and below the sixth value. Median family income is often used in statistics because this value represents the exact middle of the data better than the mean. Fifty percent of families would have incomes above or below the median. — Mode is the value occurring most often in the data.If the largest group of people in a sample measuring age were 25 years old, then 25 would be the mode. The mode is the least commonly used measure of central tendency, particularly in large data sets. However, the mode is still important for describing a data set, especially when more than one value occurs frequently. In this instance, the data would be described as bimodal or multimodal, depending on whether two or more values occur frequently in the data set. C Measures of Dispersion indicate how spread out the data are around the mean. Measures of dispersion are especially helpful when data are normally distributed, i.  e. closely resemble the bell curve.The most common measures of dispersion follow. — Variance is expressed as the sum of the squares of the differences between each observation and the mean, which quantity is then divided by the sample size. For populations, it is design ated by the square of the Greek letter sigma (F2 ). For samples, it is designated by the square of the letter s (s2). Since this is a quadratic expression, i. e. a number raised to the second power, variance is the second moment of statistics. Variance is used less frequently than standard deviation as a measure of dispersion.Variance can be used when we want to quickly compare the variability of two or more sets of interval data. In general, the higher the variance, the more spread out the data. — Standard deviation is expressed as the positive square root of the variance, i. e. F for populations and s for samples. It is the average difference between observed values and the mean. The standard deviation is used when expressing dispersion in the same units as the original measurements. It is used more commonly than the variance in expressing the degree to which data are spread out.Pearson product-moment correlation coefficientDefinition Pearson's correlation coefficient betwe en two variables is defined as the covariance of the two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations. The form of the definition involves a â€Å"product moment†, that is, the mean (the first moment about the origin) of the product of the mean-adjusted random variables; hence the modifier product-moment in the name. For a populationPearson's correlation coefficient when applied to a population is commonly represented by the Greek letter Ï  (rho) and may be referred to as the population correlation coefficient or the population Pearson correlation coefficient. The formula for Ï  is:For a sample Pearson's correlation coefficient when applied to a sample is commonly represented by the letter r and may be referred to as the sample correlation coefficient or the sample Pearson correlation coefficient. We can obtain a formula for r by substituting estimates of the covariances and variances based on a sample into the formula above. That formula forr is:An equiv alent expression gives the correlation coefficient as the mean of the products of the standard scores. Based on a sample of paired data (Xi, Yi), the sample Pearson correlation coefficient is where are the standard score, sample mean, and sample standard deviation, respectively. Mathematical properties The absolute value of both the sample and population Pearson correlation coefficients are less than or equal to 1.Correlations equal to 1 or -1 correspond to data points lying exactly on a line (in the case of the sample correlation), or to a bivariate distribution entirely supported on a line (in the case of the population correlation). The Pearson correlation coefficient is symmetric: corr(X,Y) = corr(Y,X). A key mathematical property of the Pearson correlation coefficient is that it is invariant (up to a sign) to separate changes in location and scale in the two variables.That is, we may transform X to a + bX and transform Y to c + dY, where a, b, c, and d are constants, without ch anging the correlation coefficient (this fact holds for both the population and sample Pearson correlation coefficients). Note that more general linear transformations do change the correlation: see a later section for an application of this. The Pearson correlation can be expressed in terms of uncentered moments.Since ÃŽ ¼X = E(X), ÏÆ'X2 = E[(X − E(X))2] = E(X2) − E2(X) and likewise for Y, and since the correlation can also be written as Alternative formulae for the sample Pearson correlation coefficient are also available: The above formula suggests a convenient single-pass algorithm for calculating sample correlations, but, depending on the numbers involved, it can sometimes be numerically unstable.Linear regressionIn linear regression, the model specification is that the dependent variable, is a linear combination of the parameters (but need not be linear in the independent variables). For example, in simple linear regression for modeling data points there is one in dependent variable: , and two parameters, and : straight line: (In multiple linear regression, there are several independent variables or functions of independent variables. ) Adding a term in xi2 to the preceding regression gives: parabola:This is still linear regression; although the expression on the right hand side is quadratic in the independent variable , it is linear in the parameters , and In both cases, is an error term and the subscript indexes a particular observation. Given a random sample from the population, we estimate the population parameters and obtain the sample linear regression model: The residual, , is the difference between the value of the dependent variable predicted by the model, and the true value of the dependent variable . One method of estimation is ordinary least squares.This method obtains parameter estimates that minimize the sum of squared residuals, SSE,[17][18] also sometimes denoted RSS: Minimization of this function results in a set of normal eq uations, a set of simultaneous linear equations in the parameters, which are solved to yield the parameter estimators, . Illustration of linear regression on a data set. In the case of simple regression, the formulas for the least squares estimates are where is the mean (average) of the values and is the mean of the values. See simple linear regression for a derivation of these formulas and a numerical example.Under the assumption that the population error term has a constant variance, the estimate of that variance is given by: This is called the mean square error (MSE) of the regression. The standard errors of the parameter estimates are given by Under the further assumption that the population error term is normally distributed, the researcher can use these estimated standard errors to create confidence intervals and conduct hypothesis tests about the population parameters.General linear modelIn the more general multiple regression model, there are p independent variables:  wher e xij is the ith observation on the jth independent variable, and where the first independent variable takes the value 1 for all i (so is the regression intercept). The least squares parameter estimates are obtained from p normal equations. The residual can be written as The normal equations are In matrix notation, the normal equations are written as where the ij element of X is xij, the i element of the column vector Y is yi, and the j element of is . Thus  X is nÃâ€"p, Y is nÃâ€"1, and is pÃâ€"1. The solution is For a derivation, see linear least squares, and for a numerical example, see linear regression (example).3.7 HypothesisThe null hypothesis of the study is developed to cater for the pooling regression model. The null hypotheses are: 1. (A) H01: Computer self-efficacy will not have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of the Internet banking systems. H11: Computer self-efficacy will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of the Internet banking systems. (B ) H01: Computer self-efficacy will not have a positive effect on perceived ease of use of the Internet banking systems.H11: Computer self-efficacy will have a positive effect on perceived ease of  use of the Internet banking systems. (C) H01: Computer self-efficacy will not have a negative effect on perceived credibility of the Internet banking systems. H11: Computer self-efficacy will have a negative effect on perceived credibility of the Internet banking systems. 2. H02: Perceived ease of use will not have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of the Internet banking systems. H12: Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on perceived usefulness of the Internet banking systems.3. H03: Perceived ease of use will not have a positive effect on perceived credibility of the Internet banking systems. H13: Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on perceived credibility of the Internet banking systems. 4. H04: Perceived ease of use will not have a positive effect on behavioral intention to use the Internet banking systems. H14: Perceived ease of use will have a positive effect on behavioral intention to use the Internet banking systems.3. 8 Expected OutcomeUsing the technology acceptance model as a theoretical framework, this study introduced â€Å"perceived credibility† as a new TAM factor to reflect the user’s security and privacy concerns in the acceptance of Internet banking, and examined the effect of computer self-efficacy on the intention to use Internet banking. Provide evidence of the significant effects of the individual difference variable (i. e. computer self-efficacy) on behavioral intention through perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived credibility.

Poor Prince Hamlet Essay

The dearly depressed Prince Hamlet, featured in William Spakespeare’s Hamlet, reveals his true and deeper feelings of sorrow and grief for himself and his father but also the hatred and revulsion masked beneath his quick and unkind words, directed more to his mother and Claudius. Hamlet, being the only person to see through to the true character of Claudius, dares to question as to why his mother would betray him and his â€Å"poor† (1, 2, 48) dead father. For this reason, Hamlet’s vile words of truth are spoken because of the wrong doing of his mother leading to deeper devastation and despair for the loss of his father. Consequently, the result of the death of Hamlet Sr., the father of Hamlet Jr. and former King of Denmark, would be true misery and heartbreak for the â€Å"so excellent king† (1, 2, 139) that he once knew. To begin with, Hamlet grieve over the loss putting it upon himself to commit â€Å"self-slaughter† (1, 2, 132) seeing as how the world is turning to be â€Å"an unweeded garden† (1, 2, 135), as Denmark is falling apart before him. Similarly, the new addition to his family is to blame for the inner and outer conflicts submerging within Hamlet causing question to his life. Gertrude also generates an increase of stress and grieve for the loss of his father particularly because of the remarriage. After Hamlet realizes that he cannot bear to live with such arrangements of having worse than â€Å"†¦a beast† (1, 2, 150) for a mother and a foul king that is â€Å"†¦no more to my (his) father – than I (he) to Hercules†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1, 2, 152-153), he begins to construct a conclusion that is it is not he who is at fault but his mother. In particular Hamlet recurs â€Å"within the month† (1, 2, 145) (1, 2, 153) representing the time period of Hamlet Sr. death but also the time period of when the marriage of Gertrude and Claudius occurred. The repeat of the time period supports the reason of Hamlets theory being that, although his mothers earlier cries were â€Å"all tears† (1, 2, 149), her cries are â€Å"of most unrighteous tears,† because the sorrow she utters is insincere. Further more, Hamlet claims, â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman!† (1, 2, 146) and his mother include, that all woman are weak, being that she does not have the capability to be a widow and have human feelings of sorrow and grief. He also makes a referral to his mother’s grieve comparing her to â€Å"a beast that wants discourse of reason† and how it â€Å"would have mourn’d longer† than she, representing the short episode of lament. All in all, the dear Prince Hamlet remains in his sorrowful and depressed state from the works of his more than beastly mother and newly wed, â€Å"within the month† of Hamlet Sr. death (1, 2, 145) (1, 2, 153), step father/king controlling his raw emotion of despair and hurt for his own blood father.